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Новости высоких технологий

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Information technology (IT) is the usage of computer systems to retailer, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate information[1] or news. IT is typically used inside the context of business operations as opposed to non-public or entertainment applied sciences.[2] IT is thought of as to be a subset of information and communications generation (ICT). An news era machine (IT gadget) is generally an information gadget, a communications system, or, extra specifically talking, a computer system – together with all hardware, software, and peripheral apparatus – operated by a limited workforce of IT users.

Humans had been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and speaking information for the reason that Sumerians in Mesopotamia evolved writing in about 3000 BC.[3] However, the term news generation in its fashionable sense first gave the impression in a 1958 article revealed in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)." Their definition is composed of three classes: techniques for processing, the appliance of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order pondering through pc methods.[4]

The term is repeatedly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it surely also encompasses different news distribution applied sciences similar to tv and telephones. Several products or products and services inside an economy are related to information era, together with pc hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, web, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.[5][a]

The educational point of view of information technology is a undergraduate stage lets in the student to meet their laptop science needs. Commercial and employment views are many firms rely on news generation which doesn't only come with tech firms.

Based on the garage and processing technologies hired, it is imaginable to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450–1840), electromechanical (1840–1940), and electronic (1940–present).[3] This article focuses on the latest period (electronic).

History of laptop era

Zuse Z3 reproduction on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich. The Zuse Z3 is the primary programmable laptop. Main article: History of computing hardware

Devices had been used to assist computation for hundreds of years, almost definitely initially within the type of a tally stick.[7] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from in regards to the beginning of the primary century BC, is typically considered to be the earliest identified mechanical analog laptop, and the earliest known geared mechanism.[8] Comparable geared gadgets did not emerge in Europe till the sixteenth century, and it was now not till 1645 that the first mechanical calculator in a position to acting the 4 fundamental arithmetical operations used to be evolved.[9]

Electronic computer systems, the use of either relays or valves, started to seem within the early Nineteen Forties. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and via trendy standards probably the most first machines that could be thought to be a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed all over the Second World War to decrypt German messages, was the first electronic virtual computer. Although it used to be programmable, it used to be no longer general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single job. It additionally lacked the facility to retailer its program in memory; programming was carried out the use of plugs and switches to regulate the inner wiring.[10] The first recognizably trendy digital digital stored-program pc was once the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[11]

The building of transistors in the overdue Nineteen Forties at Bell Laboratories allowed a new technology of computers to be designed with very much decreased power intake. The first commercially to be had stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer evolved at the University of Manchester and operational via November 1953, ate up only 150 watts in its final version.[12]

Several different breakthroughs in semiconductor era come with the built-in circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) invented through Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Laboratories in 1959, and the microprocessor invented through Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important innovations led to the improvement of the personal pc (PC) within the Seventies, and the emergence of knowledge and communications generation (ICT).[13]

Electronic information processing

Main article: Electronic knowledge processing Data garage Punched tapes have been used in early computer systems to represent data. Main article: Data storage software

Early electronic computer systems corresponding to Colossus made use of punched tape, an extended strip of paper on which data was once represented through a series of holes, a technology now out of date.[14] Electronic data storage, which is utilized in trendy computers, dates from World War II, when a form of extend line reminiscence was once advanced to take away the litter from radar signals, the first practical utility of which was once the mercury extend line.[15] The first random-access virtual storage instrument was the Williams tube, in accordance with a typical cathode ray tube,[16] but the information kept in it and extend line reminiscence was unstable in that it had to be steadily refreshed, and thus was once misplaced as soon as power was got rid of. The earliest type of non-volatile laptop garage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932[17] and used within the Ferranti Mark 1, the arena's first commercially to be had general-purpose electronic computer.[18]

IBM presented the primary arduous disk force in 1956, as an element in their 305 RAMAC pc device.[19]:6 Most digital knowledge as of late is still stored magnetically on exhausting disks, or optically on media comparable to CD-ROMs.[20]:4–5 Until 2002 most news used to be kept on analog gadgets, but that yr digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the primary time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the knowledge stored international was once held digitally:[21] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the global capability to retailer information on digital units grew from less than Three exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007,[22] doubling more or less each and every Three years.[23]

Databases Main article: Database

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged within the 1960s to deal with the issue of storing and retrieving massive quantities of knowledge as it should be and quickly. An early such techniques was IBM's Information Management System (IMS),[24] which remains to be widely deployed greater than 50 years later.[25] IMS retail outlets data hierarchically,[24] but in the Nineteen Seventies Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage fashion based on set principle and predicate good judgment and the acquainted concepts of tables, rows and columns. In 1981, the primary commercially available relational database control system (RDBMS) was once launched via Oracle.[26]

All DMS encompass parts, they enable the knowledge they retailer to be accessed simultaneously by way of many users whilst keeping up its integrity.[27] All databases are not unusual in one point that the structure of the information they contain is defined and kept one by one from the data itself, in a database schema.[24]

In contemporary years, the extensible markup language (XML) has change into a popular layout for knowledge illustration. Although XML knowledge may also be kept in commonplace document systems, it's often held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort".[28] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human-readable.[29]

Data retrieval

The relational database model offered a programming-language unbiased Structured Query Language (SQL), in accordance with relational algebra.

The terms "data" and "information" are not synonymous. Anything saved is data, however it most effective becomes news when it is organized and introduced meaningfully.[30]:1–9 Most of the sector's virtual data is unstructured, and saved in numerous other bodily formats[31][b] even inside of a unmarried group. Data warehouses began to be developed within the 1980s to integrate these disparate retail outlets. They usually contain knowledge extracted from more than a few assets, together with external sources such as the Internet, organized in this sort of approach as to facilitate resolution strengthen methods (DSS).[32]:4–6

Data transmission

Data transmission has 3 sides: transmission, propagation, and reception.[33] It may also be broadly labeled as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.[22]

XML has been increasingly hired as a method of information interchange since the early 2000s,[34] particularly for machine-oriented interactions equivalent to the ones taken with web-oriented protocols reminiscent of SOAP,[29] describing "data-in-transit rather than ... data-at-rest".[34]

Data manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez determine the exponential tempo of technological alternate (a type of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capability to compute news in line with capita more or less doubled each 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the in line with capita capability of the world's general-purpose computer systems doubled every 18 months during the similar twenty years; the worldwide telecommunication capacity according to capita doubled each and every 34 months; the arena's garage capacity in step with capita required more or less Forty months to double (each and every 3 years); and according to capita broadcast news has doubled each 12.3 years.[22]

Massive amounts of data are stored international each day, however unless it may be analysed and presented successfully it necessarily is living in what were referred to as information tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited".[35] To address that factor, the sector of information mining – "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"[36] – emerged within the late Eighties.[37] Hilbert and Lopez determine the exponential tempo of technological alternate (a type of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information according to capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the in keeping with capita capability of the sector's general-purpose computer systems doubled each and every 18 months right through the same 20 years; the worldwide telecommunication capability according to capita doubled every 34 months; the sector's garage capability consistent with capita required more or less Forty months to double (each and every Three years); and in keeping with capita broadcast news has doubled every 12.3 years.[22]

Perspectives

Academic standpoint

In an educational context, the Association for Computing Machinery defines IT as "undergraduate degree programs that prepare students to meet the computer technology needs of business, government, healthcare, schools, and other kinds of organizations .... IT specialists assume responsibility for selecting hardware and software products appropriate for an organization, integrating those products with organizational needs and infrastructure, and installing, customizing, and maintaining those applications for the organization's computer users."[38]

Undergraduate degrees in IT (B.S., A.S.) are an identical to different computer science levels. In truth, they incessantly occasions have the similar foundational degree courses. Computer science (CS) systems generally tend to focus more on principle and design, whereas Information Technology systems are structured to equip the graduate with expertise within the practical application of technology answers to fortify fashionable business and user needs.

Commercial and employment standpoint

Companies in the news era subject are continuously discussed as a bunch as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry".[39][40][41] These titles can be deceptive now and then and will have to now not be mistaken for "tech companies"; which can be in most cases huge scale, for-profit companies that sell client generation and device. It is also value noting that from a trade viewpoint, Information Technology departments are a "price heart" the vast majority of the time. A cost center is a division or body of workers which incurs expenses, or "costs", inside a company relatively than producing income or income streams. Modern businesses depend heavily on generation for his or her day-to-day operations, so the bills delegated to quilt generation that facilitates industry in a extra environment friendly means is normally noticed as "just the price of doing industry". IT departments are allocated budget via senior management and will have to attempt to reach the required deliverables whilst staying inside that price range. Government and the personal sector may have different funding mechanisms, but the rules are more-or-less the same. This is an steadily lost sight of reason for the rapid pastime in automation and Artificial Intelligence, but the constant drive to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take keep an eye on of no less than some minor operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computer systems, networks, and other technical spaces in their businesses. Companies have additionally sought to combine IT with business results and decision-making through a BizOps or trade operations department.[42]

In a industry context, the Information Technology Association of America has outlined news technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems".[43] The tasks of the ones working in the field come with community administration, software building and installation, and the planning and control of a company's era lifestyles cycle, during which hardware and tool are maintained, upgraded and replaced.

Information products and services

Information products and services is a time period rather loosely applied to plenty of IT-related products and services introduced via commercial companies,[44][45][46] as well as information agents.

U.S. Employment distribution of laptop programs design and connected products and services, 2011[47]

U.S. Employment in the laptop programs and design related products and services business, in thousands, 1990-2011[47]

U.S. Occupational growth and wages in computer systems design and related products and services, 2010-2020[47]

U.S. projected percent alternate in employment in selected occupations in laptop programs design and related services, 2010-2020[47]

U.S. projected moderate annual % trade in output and employment in selected industries, 2010-2020[47]

Ethical perspectives Main article: Information ethics

The discipline of information ethics used to be established via mathematician Norbert Wiener in the Nineteen Forties.[48]:9 Some of the ethical issues related to the use of news technology come with:[49]:20–21

Breaches of copyright through those downloading information saved with out the permission of the copyright holders Employers monitoring their workers' emails and other Internet usage Unsolicited emails Hackers having access to on-line databases Web websites installing cookies or spyware and adware to observe a person's on-line actions, that could be used by knowledge agents

References

Notes ^ On the later extra wide application of the term IT, Keary feedback: "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."[6] ^ "Format" refers to the physical traits of the kept knowledge similar to its encoding scheme; "structure" describes the organisation of that data. Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.quotationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"\"""\"""'""'".mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")appropriate 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")appropriate 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em heart/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolour:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")appropriate 0.1em middle/12px no-repeat.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errorshow:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;colour:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em.mw-parser-output .quotation .mw-selflinkfont-weight:inheritDaintith, John, ed. (2009), "IT", A Dictionary of Physics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780199233991, retrieved 1 August 2012 (subscription required) ^ "Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)". Archived from the unique on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Information Technology and Systems, University of Arizona, retrieved 2 August 2012 ^ Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958), "Management in the 1980s", Harvard Business Review, 11 ^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), "Information technology", A Dictionary of Media and Communication (first ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, retrieved 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computers and pc networks but more widely designating any era this is used to generate, store, procedure, and/or distribute news electronically, including television and telephone. ^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000), p. 869 ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets", Science, 211 (4479): 283–85, Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S, doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283, PMID 17748027 ^ Wright (2012), p. 279 ^ Chaudhuri (2004), p. 3 ^ Lavington (1980), p. 11 ^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection (20), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 9 January 2012, retrieved 19 April 2008 ^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. 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Retrieved 17 December 2019. ^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010), p. 178 ^ Lavington (1998), p. 1 ^ "Early computers at Manchester University", Resurrection, 1 (4), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 28 August 2017, retrieved 19 April 2008 ^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), "Magnetic drum", Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, retrieved 21 August 2011 ^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the original on 21 November 2008, retrieved 24 January 2009 ^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2 ^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3 ^ Wu, Suzanne, "How Much Information Is There in the World?", USC News, University of Southern California, retrieved 10 September 2013 ^ a b c d Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (1 April 2011), "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Science, 332 (6025): 60–65, Bibcode:2011Sci...332...60H, doi:10.1126/science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385, retrieved 10 September 2013 ^ "Americas events- Video animation on The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010". The Economist. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. ^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006), p. 2 ^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, retrieved 7 August 2012 ^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006), p. 3 ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7. ^ Pardede (2009), p. 2 ^ a b Pardede (2009), p. 4 ^ Kedar, Seema (2009). Database Management System. Technical Publications. ISBN 9788184316049. ^ van der Aalst (2011), p. 2 ^ Dyché, Jill (2000), Turning Data Into Information With Data Warehousing, Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-65780-7 ^ Weik (2000), p. 361 ^ a b Pardede (2009), p. xiii ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. 5 ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. 8 ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. xxiii ^ The Joint Task Force for Computing Curricula 2005.Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report (pdf) Archived 21 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Technology Sector Snapshot". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Our programmes, campaigns and partnerships". TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Cyberstates 2016". CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT | IT Leadership | TechNewsWorld". www.technewsworld.com. Retrieved 22 March 2021. ^ Proctor, Ok. Scott (2011), Optimizing and Assessing Information Technology: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3 ^ "Top Information Services companies". VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ "Follow Information Services on Index.co". Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ Publishing, Value Line. "Industry Overview: Information Services". Value Line. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). "U.S. Careers in the growing field of information technology services : Beyond the Numbers: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics". bls.gov. ^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008), "Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics", in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5 ^ Reynolds, George (2009), Ethics in Information Technology, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9 Bibliography Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1 Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8 Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1 Lavington, Simon (1980), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8 Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2d ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5 Pardede, Eric (2009), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1 Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7 van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6 Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8 Weik, Martin (2000), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0 Wright, Michael T. (2012), "The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism", in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations within the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279–292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further studying

Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994), Information Technology and the Corporation of the Nineties, Oxford University Press Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information Technology: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280 Gleick, James (2011).The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon Books. Price, Wilson T. (1981), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2 Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology. Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986). Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

External links

Learning fabrics linked to Information era at Wikiversity Media connected to Information technology at Wikimedia Commons Quotations linked to Information generation at Wikiquote "Operational technology (OT) - definitions and differences with IT". i-SCOOP. Retrieved 20 March 2021.vteInformation processinginformation processesinformation processes by means of function belief consideration influence operating communication reasoning learning storing decision-makinginformation processing abstractions tournament processing sign processesing sign processing knowledge processing stream processing agent processing state processinginformation processorsnatural nature as information processing humans as information processing techniques society as news processing systemmixed combined reality brain-computer interface bodily computing human–laptop interactionartificial processors and processes bio-inspired computing ubiquitous computing artificial mind and thoughts uploading digital truth virtual worldinformation processing theories and conceptsin philosophy computational theory of mind philosophy of information philosophy of synthetic intelligencein cognitive psychology news processing concept mind and intelligence cognitive informatics and neuroinformatics behavior informaticsinterdisciplinary information concept decision principle methods theoryin pc science neural computation computation theory algorithms and knowledge constructions computational circuits artificial intelligencein biology computational and programs biology genetic informatics and mobile computing computational neuroscience and neurocomputingin pseudoscience Intelligent design law of conservation of informationother anti-information infosphere inforg Decoding the Universe news overload Authority keep watch over GND: 4026926-7 MA: 121017731 NDL: 01167533 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_technology&oldid=1016554058"